Correction to: Optimizing conditions for labeling of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) with gold nanoparticles: a prerequisite for in vivo tracking of MSCs.

The authors apologized for the unfortunate error in figure during publication of the article and they also explained that some of the solid grey graphs in Fig. 5 are intentionally based on the same data. For 8 different surface makers (CD14, CD73, CD34, CD105, CD19, CD90, CD45, HA-DR) in accordance to the guidelines of the manufacturer a panel of 4 different isotype controls were used, corresponding to 4 different fluorescence channels.

Laterally and Temporally Controlled Intracellular Staining by Light-Triggered Release of Encapsulated Fluorescent Markers.

Fluorescent molecular markers were encapsulated. The capsules were additionally modified with plasmonic nanoparticles. The encapsulated markers were endocytosed by cells. Upon light stimulation the plasmonic nanoparticles generated heat, which opened the encapsulation and transiently perforated the endosomal/lysosomal membrane surrounding the capsule, thus allowing for release of the marker into the cytosol. Fluorescence labeling of different intracellular compartments was demonstrated in this way. Most important, the cells do not need to be fixed and perforated, as the molecular markers are introduced into cells by endocytosis and subsequent light-induced release. Thus this technique allows for intracellular fluorescence labeling of living cells.

The role of intracellular trafficking of CdSe/ZnS QDs on their consequent toxicity profile.

BACKGROUND: Nanoparticle interactions with cellular membranes and the kinetics of their transport and localization are important determinants of their functionality and their biological consequences. Understanding these phenomena is fundamental for the translation of such NPs from in vitro to in vivo systems for bioimaging and medical applications. Two CdSe/ZnS quantum dots (QD) with differing surface functionality (NH2 or COOH moieties) were used here for investigating the intracellular uptake and transport kinetics of these QDs. RESULTS: In water, the COOH- and NH2-QDs were negatively and positively charged, respectively, while in serum-containing medium the NH2-QDs were agglomerated, whereas the COOH-QDs remained dispersed. Though intracellular levels of NH2- and COOH-QDs were very similar after 24 h exposure, COOH-QDs appeared to be continuously internalised and transported by endosomes and lysosomes, while NH2-QDs mainly remained in the lysosomes. The results of (intra)cellular QD trafficking were correlated to their toxicity profiles investigating levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial ROS, autophagy, changes to cellular morphology and alterations in genes involved in cellular stress, toxicity and cytoskeletal integrity. The continuous flux of COOH-QDs perhaps explains their higher toxicity compared to the NH2-QDs, mainly resulting in mitochondrial ROS and cytoskeletal remodelling which are phenomena that occur early during cellular exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these data reveal that although cellular QD levels were similar after 24 h, differences in the nature and extent of their cellular trafficking resulted in differences in consequent gene alterations and toxicological effects.

Influence of Size and Shape on the Anatomical Distribution of Endotoxin-Free Gold Nanoparticles.

The transport and the delivery of drugs through nanocarriers is a great challenge of pharmacology. Since the production of liposomes to reduce the toxicity of doxorubicin in patients, a plethora of nanomaterials have been produced and characterized. Although it is widely known that elementary properties of nanomaterials influence their in vivo kinetics, such interaction is often poorly investigated in many preclinical studies. The present study aims to evaluate the actual effect of size and shape on the biodistribution of a set of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) after intravenous administration in mice. To this goal, quantitative data achieved by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and observational results emerging from histochemistry (autometallography and enhanced dark-field hyperspectral microscopy) were combined. Since the immune system plays a role in bionano-interaction we used healthy immune-competent mice. To keep the immune surveillance on the physiological levels we synthesized endotoxin-free GNPs to be tested in specific pathogen-free animals. Our study mainly reveals that (a) the size and the shape greatly influence the kinetics of accumulation and excretion of GNPs in filter organs; (b) spherical and star-like GNPs showed the same percentage of accumulation, but a different localization in liver; (c) only star-like GNPs are able to accumulate in lung; (d) changes in the geometry did not improve the passage of the blood brain barrier. Overall, this study can be considered as a reliable starting point to drive the synthesis and the functionalization of potential candidates for theranostic purposes in many fields of research.

Optimizing conditions for labeling of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) with gold nanoparticles: a prerequisite for in vivo tracking of MSCs.

BACKGROUND: Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have an inherent migratory capacity towards tumor tissue in vivo. With the future objective to quantify the tumor homing efficacy of MSCs, as first step in this direction we investigated the use of inorganic nanoparticles (NPs), in particular ca. 4 nm-sized Au NPs, for MSC labeling. Time dependent uptake efficiencies of NPs at different exposure concentrations and times were determined via inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). RESULTS: The labeling efficiency of the MSCs was determined in terms of the amount of exocytosed NPs versus the amount of initially endocytosed NPs, demonstrating that at high concentrations the internalized Au NPs were exocytosed over time, leading to continuous exhaustion. While exposure to NPs did not significantly impair cell viability or expression of surface markers, even at high dose levels, MSCs were significantly affected in their proliferation and migration potential. These results demonstrate that proliferation or migration assays are more suitable to evaluate whether labeling of MSCs with certain amounts of NPs exerts distress on cells. However, despite optimized conditions the labeling efficiency varied considerably in MSC lots from different donors, indicating cell specific loading capacities for NPs. Finally, we determined the detection limits of Au NP-labeled MSCs within murine tissue employing ICP-MS and demonstrate the distribution and homing of NP labeled MSCs in vivo. CONCLUSION: Although large amounts of NPs improve contrast for imaging, duration and extend of labeling needs to be adjusted carefully to avoid functional deficits in MSCs. We established an optimized labeling strategy for human MSCs with Au NPs that preserves their migratory capacity in vivo.

Tumour homing and therapeutic effect of colloidal nanoparticles depend on the number of attached antibodies.

Active targeting of nanoparticles to tumours can be achieved by conjugation with specific antibodies. Specific active targeting of the HER2 receptor is demonstrated in vitro and in vivo with a subcutaneous MCF-7 breast cancer mouse model with trastuzumab-functionalized gold nanoparticles. The number of attached antibodies per nanoparticle was precisely controlled in a way that each nanoparticle was conjugated with either exactly one or exactly two antibodies. As expected, in vitro we found a moderate increase in targeting efficiency of nanoparticles with two instead of just one antibody attached per nanoparticle. However, the in vivo data demonstrate that best effect is obtained for nanoparticles with only exactly one antibody. There is indication that this is based on a size-related effect. These results highlight the importance of precisely controlling the ligand density on the nanoparticle surface for optimizing active targeting, and that less antibodies can exhibit more effect.

Zwitterionic surface coating of quantum dots reduces protein adsorption and cellular uptake.

We have studied the effect of the zwitterionic surface coating of quantum dots (QDs) on their interaction with a serum supplemented cell medium and their internalization by human cervical carcinoma (HeLa) cells. Zwitterionic QDs showed negligible adsorption of human serum albumin (HSA) selected as a model serum protein, in contrast to similar but negatively charged QDs. The incorporation of zwitterionic QDs by HeLa cells was found to be lower than for negatively charged QDs and for positively charged QDs, for which the uptake yield was largest. Our results suggest that the suppression of protein adsorption, here accomplished by zwitterionic QD surfaces, offers a strategy that allows for reducing the cellular uptake of nanoparticles.

Evaluation of quantum dot cytotoxicity: interpretation of nanoparticle concentrations versus intracellular nanoparticle numbers.

While substantial progress has been achieved in the design of more biocompatible nanoparticles (NP), detailed data are required on the precise interactions of NPs and their environment for more reliable interpretation of toxicity results. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the interaction of two quantum dots (QDs) of the same core material CdSe/ZnS coated with two different amphiphilic polymers, with two well-established mammalian cell lines representing possible sites of QD accumulation. Results are linked to either extracellular QD concentrations (given dose) or cellular QD levels (number of internalized particles). In this study, QD internalization, effects on cellular homeostasis, and consequent inflammatory and cytoskeletal alterations caused by these QDs were explored. Fluorescence imaging techniques, including; image-based flow cytometry, confocal microscopy and high-content imaging with the InCell analyzer were used in a multiparametric methodology to evaluate cell viability, induction of oxidative stress, mitochondrial health, cell cytoskeletal functionality and changes in cellular morphology. Gene expression arrays were also carried out on 168 key genes involved in the cytoskeletal architecture and inflammatory pathway accompanied with the analysis of focal adhesions as key markers for actin-mediated signaling. Our results show distinct differences between the PMA and PTMAEMA-stat-PLMA coated QDs, which could mainly be attributed to differences in their cellular uptake levels. The toxicity profiles of both QD types changed drastically depending on whether effects were expressed in terms of given dose or internalized particles. Both QDs triggered alterations to important but different genes, most remarkably the up-regulation of tumor suppression and necrosis genes and the down regulation of angiogenesis and metastasis genes at sub-cytotoxic concentrations of these QDs.

Basic Physicochemical Properties of Polyethylene Glycol Coated Gold Nanoparticles that Determine Their Interaction with Cells.

A homologous nanoparticle library was synthesized in which gold nanoparticles were coated with polyethylene glycol, whereby the diameter of the gold cores, as well as the thickness of the shell of polyethylene glycol, was varied. Basic physicochemical parameters of this two-dimensional nanoparticle library, such as size, ζ-potential, hydrophilicity, elasticity, and catalytic activity ,were determined. Cell uptake of selected nanoparticles with equal size yet varying thickness of the polymer shell and their effect on basic structural and functional cell parameters was determined. Data indicates that thinner, more hydrophilic coatings, combined with the partial functionalization with quaternary ammonium cations, result in a more efficient uptake, which relates to significant effects on structural and functional cell parameters.

Influence of Temperature on the Colloidal Stability of Polymer-Coated Gold Nanoparticles in Cell Culture Media.

The temperature-dependence of the hydrodynamic diameter and colloidal stability of gold-polymer core-shell particles with temperature-sensitive (poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)) and temperature-insensitive shells (polyallylaminine hydrochloride/polystyrensulfonate, poly(isobutylene-alt-maleic anhydride)-graft-dodecyl) are investigated in various aqueous media. The data demonstrate that for all nanoparticle agglomeration, i.e., increase in effective nanoparticle size, the presence of salts or proteins in the dispersion media has to be taken into account. Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) coated nanoparticles show a reversible temperature-dependent increase in size above the volume phase transition of the polymer shell when they are dispersed in phosphate buffered saline or in media containing protein. In contrast, the nanoparticles coated with temperature-insensitive polymers show a time-dependent increase in size in phosphate buffered saline or in medium containing protein. This is due to time-dependent agglomeration, which is particularly strong in phosphate buffered saline, and induces a time-dependent, irreversible increase in the hydrodynamic diameter of the nanoparticles. This demonstrates that one has to distinguish between temperature- and time-induced agglomerations. Since the size of nanoparticles regulates their uptake by cells, temperature-dependent uptake of thermosensitive and non-thermosensitive nanoparticles by cells lines is compared. No temperature-specific difference between both types of nanoparticles could be observed.

Charge and agglomeration dependent in vitro uptake and cytotoxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles.

The influence of the surface charge and the state of agglomeration of ZnO nanoparticles on cellular uptake and viability are investigated. For this purpose, ZnO nanoparticles were synthesized by colloidal routes and their physicochemical properties were investigated in detail. Three different surface modifications were investigated, involving coatings with the amphiphilic polymer poly(isobutylene-alt-maleic anhydride)-graft-dodecyl, mercaptoundecanoic acid, and L-arginine, which provide the nanoparticles with either a negative or a positive zeta-potential. The hydrodynamic diameters and zeta-potentials of all three nanoparticle species were investigated at different pH values and NaCl concentrations by means of dynamic light scattering and laser Doppler anemometry, respectively. The three differently modified ZnO nanoparticle species of similar sizes were also investigated in respect to their cellular uptake by 3T3 fibroblasts and HeLa cells, and their effect on cell viability.

In vivo integrity of polymer-coated gold nanoparticles.

Inorganic nanoparticles are frequently engineered with an organic surface coating to improve their physicochemical properties, and it is well known that their colloidal properties may change upon internalization by cells. While the stability of such nanoparticles is typically assayed in simple in vitro tests, their stability in a mammalian organism remains unknown. Here, we show that firmly grafted polymer shells around gold nanoparticles may degrade when injected into rats. We synthesized monodisperse radioactively labelled gold nanoparticles ((198)Au) and engineered an (111)In-labelled polymer shell around them. Upon intravenous injection into rats, quantitative biodistribution analyses performed independently for (198)Au and (111)In showed partial removal of the polymer shell in vivo. While (198)Au accumulates mostly in the liver, part of the (111)In shows a non-particulate biodistribution similar to intravenous injection of chelated (111)In. Further in vitro studies suggest that degradation of the polymer shell is caused by proteolytic enzymes in the liver. Our results show that even nanoparticles with high colloidal stability can change their physicochemical properties in vivo.

Conjugation of Polymer-Coated Gold Nanoparticles with Antibodies-Synthesis and Characterization.

The synthesis of polymer-coated gold nanoparticles with high colloidal stability is described, together with appropriate characterization techniques concerning the colloidal properties of the nanoparticles. Antibodies against vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are conjugated to the surface of the nanoparticles. Antibody attachment is probed by different techniques, giving a guideline about the characterization of such conjugates. The effect of the nanoparticles on human adenocarcinoma alveolar basal epithelial cells (A549) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) is probed in terms of internalization and viability assays.

Comparison of the in Vitro Uptake and Toxicity of Collagen- and Synthetic Polymer-Coated Gold Nanoparticles.

We studied the physico-chemical properties (size, shape, zeta-potential), cellular internalization and toxicity of gold nanoparticles (NPs) stabilized with the most abundant mammalian protein, collagen. The properties of these gold NPs were compared to the same sized gold NPs coated with synthetic poly(isobutylene-alt-maleic anhydride) (PMA). Intracellular uptake and cytotoxicity were assessed in two cell lines (cervical carcinoma and lung adenocarcinoma cells) by employing inductively-coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis and a cell viability assay based on 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), respectively. We found that the collagen-coated gold NPs exhibit lower cytotoxicity, but higher uptake levels than PMA-coated gold NPs. These results demonstrate that the surface coating of Au NPs plays a decisive role in their biocompatibility.

Particle-based optical sensing of intracellular ions at the example of calcium - what are the experimental pitfalls?

Colloidal particles with fluorescence read-out are commonly used as sensors for the quantitative determination of ions. Calcium, for example, is a biologically highly relevant ion in signaling, and thus knowledge of its spatio-temporal distribution inside cells would offer important experimental data. However, the use of particle-based intracellular sensors for ion detection is not straightforward. Important associated problems involve delivery and intracellular location of particle-based fluorophores, crosstalk of the fluorescence read-out with pH, and spectral overlap of the emission spectra of different fluorophores. These potential problems are outlined and discussed here with selected experimental examples. Potential solutions are discussed and form a guideline for particle-based intracellular imaging of ions.

Temperature: the "ignored" factor at the NanoBio interface.

Upon incorporation of nanoparticles (NPs) into the body, they are exposed to biological fluids, and their interaction with the dissolved biomolecules leads to the formation of the so-called protein corona on the surface of the NPs. The composition of the corona plays a crucial role in the biological fate of the NPs. While the effects of various physicochemical parameters on the composition of the corona have been explored in depth, the role of temperature upon its formation has received much less attention. In this work, we have probed the effect of temperature on the protein composition on the surface of a set of NPs with various surface chemistries and electric charges. Our results indicate that the degree of protein coverage and the composition of the adsorbed proteins on the NPs' surface depend on the temperature at which the protein corona is formed. Also, the uptake of NPs is affected by the temperature. Temperature is, thus, an important parameter that needs to be carefully controlled in quantitative studies of bionano interactions.

Polymer-coated nanoparticles interacting with proteins and cells: focusing on the sign of the net charge.

To study charge-dependent interactions of nanoparticles (NPs) with biological media and NP uptake by cells, colloidal gold nanoparticles were modified with amphiphilic polymers to obtain NPs with identical physical properties except for the sign of the charge (negative/positive). This strategy enabled us to solely assess the influence of charge on the interactions of the NPs with proteins and cells, without interference by other effects such as different size and colloidal stability. Our study shows that the number of adsorbed human serum albumin molecules per NP was not influenced by their surface charge. Positively charged NPs were incorporated by cells to a larger extent than negatively charged ones, both in serum-free and serum-containing media. Consequently, with and without protein corona (i.e., in serum-free medium) present, NP internalization depends on the sign of charge. The uptake rate of NPs by cells was higher for positively than for negatively charged NPs. Furthermore, cytotoxicity assays revealed a higher cytotoxicity for positively charged NPs, associated with their enhanced uptake.